Published Articles and Scientific Papers

Whilst the Laboratory Biosphere has only been operational since early in 2002, it is the latest in a linked series of projects that together have a long history and about which there have been many scientific articles published over the years.

Here, together with the most recently published results of actual experiments in the Laboratory Biosphere can be found references to earlier pioneering work, both theoretical and practical, including the Russian Bios-3 system, the Biosphere 2 facility, which still remains the largest laboratory for global ecological research ever built, and a sampling of papers relating to planned future developments, such as the Mars on Earth Project®, for which this experimental chamber serves as a prototype and working model.

The Mars On Earth® Project: Lessons Learned from Biosphere 2 and Laboratory Biosphere Closed Systems Experiments

 Abigail Alling, Mark Van Thillo, William Dempster, Mark Nelson, Sally Silverstone, John Allen

Abstract

Mars On Earth® (MOE) is a demonstration/research project that will develop systems for maintaining 4 people in a sustainable (bioregenerative) life support system on Mars. The overall design will address not only the functional requirements for maintaining long term human habitation in a sustainable artificial environment, but the aesthetic need for beauty and nutritional/psychological importance of a diversity of foods which has been noticeably lacking in most space settlement designs. 

Key features selected for the Mars On Earth® life support system build on the experience of operating Biosphere 2 as a closed ecological system facility from 1991-1994, its smaller 400 cubic meter test module and Laboratory Biosphere, a cylindrical steel chamber with horizontal axis 3.68 meters long and 3.65 meters in diameter.

Future Mars On Earth® agriculture/atmospheric research will include: determining optimal light levels for growth of a variety of crops, energy trade-offs for agriculture (e.g. light intensity vs. required area), optimal design of soil-based agriculture/horticulture systems, strategies for safe re-use of human waste products, and maintaining atmospheric balance between people, plants and soils.

©2005. Jpn. Soc. Biol. Sci. Space, Vol. 19 No. 4: 250-260.

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Atmospheric dynamics in the “Laboratory Biosphere” with wheat and sweet potato crops

 William F. Dempster, J.P. Allen, A. Alling ,  M. Nelson, S. Silverstone, M. Van Thillo

 Abstract
 Laboratory Biosphere is a 40 m3 closed life system equipped with 12000 watts of high pressure sodium lamps over planting beds with 5.37 m2 of soil. Atmospheric composition changes due to photosynthetic fixation of carbon dioxide and corresponding production of oxygen or the reverse, respiration, are observed in short timeframes, e.g. hourly. To focus on inherent characteristics of the crop as distinct from its area or the volume of the chamber, we report fixation and respiration rates in mmol h-1 m-2 of planted area. An 85 day crop of USU Apogee wheat under a 16 hour lighted / 8 hour dark regime peaked in fixation rate at about 100 mmol h-1 m-2 approximately 24 days after planting. Light intensity was about 840 mmol m-2 s-1. Dark respiration peaked at about 31 mmol h-1 m-2 at the same time. Thereafter, both fixation and respiration declined toward zero as harvest time approached. A residual soil respiration rate of about 1.9 mmol h-1 m-2 was observed in the dark closed chamber for 100 days after the harvest. A 126 day crop of Tuskegee TU-82-155 sweet potato behaved quite differently. Under a 680 mmol m-2 s-1, 18 hour lighted / 6 hour dark regime, fixation during lighted hours rose to a plateau ranging from about 27 to 48 mmol h-1 m-2 after 42 days and dark respiration settled into a range of 12 to 23 mmol h-1 m-2. These rates continued unabated until the harvest at 126 days, suggesting that tuber biomass production might have continued at about the same rate for some time beyond the harvest time that was exercised in this experiment. In both experiments CO2 levels were allowed to range widely from a few hundred ppm to about 3000 ppm, which permitted observation of fixation rates both at varying CO2 concentrations and at each number of days after planting. This enables plotting the fixation rate as a function of both variables. Understanding the atmospheric dynamics of individual crops will be essential for design and atmospheric management of more complex CELSS which integrate the simultaneous growth of several crops as in a sustainable remote life support system.

 © 2005 COSPAR
Advances in Space Research 2005;35(9):1552-6. 

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Closure as a Scientific Concept and its Application to Ecosystem Ecology and the Science of the Biosphere

H. Morowitz., J.P. Allen, M. Nelson  and A. Alling

 Abstract

 Closure is a key concept in the physical sciences that has infrequently been used in ecology.  The paper reviews closure to the flow of matter and energy (adiabatic walls) and closure to the flow of matter (diathermal walls). A system with rigid adiabatic walls will degrade eventually to chemical equilibrium, a state of maximum entropy.  A third type of closure involves semi-permeable walls permitting the flow of one or more types of chemicals.  These closure concepts were important to the development of classical thermodynamics and statistical mechanics in the 19th and 20th centuries.  “Equilibrium” is often used to describe time independent steady state.  This usage leads to confusion, because equilibrium has such a precise meaning in thermal physics. All living systems are far-from-equilibrium and life cannot persist without the flow of energy.  The Earth is an almost materially-closed system.  Only a small amount of cosmic matter is captured by the earth’s gravitational field and only a small fraction of lighter elements escape that field.  The earth receives photon flux from the sun and generates thermal energy from the planetary decay of radioisotopes. A hypothesis can be advanced that the planetary biosphere exists in part because of material closure due to gravitation.  In the science of ecology partial material closure has been introduced in limnology and island ecology.  This has advanced biogeographical theory and systems ecology.  The development of the past half century of first balanced aquaria and terrariums, and then partially materially-closed microcosms and mesocosms has also greatly aided the development of ecology as an experimental rather than merely descriptive science. All the above systems are open atmospherically, and often have some water and nutrient inputs. The development of truly materially closed man-made systems offers further scope for the development of experimental ecology. The paper reviews and defines the various types of closed ecological systems: Class 1: natural planetary biospheres (like the Earth’s); and Class 2: man-made systems which range from laboratory microbial ecospheres, to ones capable of human life support: Controlled Environmental Life Support Systems (CELSS such as are being developed by NASA and the European Space Agency), Closed Ecological Systems (such as Bios-3 at the Institute of Biophysics in Krasnoyarsk, Russia and the Biosphere 2 Test Module) to mini-biospheric systems with a complexity of internal ecosystems (e.g. Biosphere 2 and the Closed Ecology Experimental Facility, CEEF, in Japan).

 © 2005 COSPAR.
Published in Advances in Space Research 36 (2005) 1305-1311

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Crop Yield and Light/Energy Efficiency in a Closed Ecological System: Two Laboratory Biosphere Experiments. 

Nelson, M., W.F. Dempster, S. Silverstone, A. Alling, J.P. Allen and M. Van Thillo.

 Advances in Space Research 35 (2005) 1539-1543.

Two crop growth experiments in the soil-based closed ecological facility, Laboratory Biosphere, were conducted from 2003 to 2004 with candidate space life support crops. Apogee wheat (Utah State University variety) was grown, planted at two densities, 400 and 800 seeds m-2. The lighting regime for the wheat crop was 16 h of light-8 h dark at a total light intensity of around 840 micromoles m-2 s-1 and 48.4 mol m-2 d-1 over 84 days. Average biomass was 1395 g m-2, 16.0 g m-2 d-1 and average seed production was 689 g m-2 and 7.9 g m-2 d-1. The less densely planted side was more productive than the denser planting, with 1634 g m-2 and 18.8 g m-2 d-1 of biomass vs. 1156 g m-2 and 13.3 g m-2 d-1; and a seed harvest of 812.3 g m-2 and 9.3 g m-2 d-1 vs. 566.5 g m-2 and 6.5 g m-2 d-1. Harvest index was 0.49 for the wheat crop. The experiment with sweet potato used TU-82-155 a compact variety developed at Tuskegee University. Light during the sweet potato experiment, on a 18 h on/6 h dark cycle, totaled 5568 total moles of light per square meter in 126 days for the sweet potatoes, or an average of 44.2 mol m-2 d-1. Temperature regime was 28 +/- 3 degrees C day/22 +/- 4 degrees C night. Sweet potato tuber yield was 39.7 kg wet weight, or an average of 7.4 kg m-2, and 7.7 kg dry weight of tubers since dry weight was about 18.6% wet weight. Average per day production was 58.7 g m-2 d-1 wet weight and 11.3 g m-2 d-1. For the wheat, average light efficiency was 0.34 g biomass per mole, and 0.17 g seed per mole. The best area of wheat had an efficiency of light utilization of 0.51 g biomass per mole and 0.22 g seed per mole. For the sweet potato crop, light efficiency per tuber wet weight was 1.33 g mol-1 and 0.34 g dry weight of tuber per mole of light. The best area of tuber production had 1.77 g mol-1 wet weight and 0.34 g mol-1 of light dry weight. The Laboratory Biosphere experiment's light efficiency was somewhat higher than the USU field results but somewhat below greenhouse trials at comparable light levels, and the best portion of the crop at 0.22 g mol-1 was in-between those values. Sweet potato production was overall close to 50% higher than trials using hydroponic methods with TU-82-155 at NASA JSC. Compared to projected yields for the Mars on Earth life support system, these wheat yields were about 15% higher, and the sweet potato yields averaged over 80% higher.

©2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of COSPAR.

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Soil and Crop Management Experiments in the Laboratory Biosphere: An Analogue System for the Mars On Earth® Facility

 S. Silverstone, M. Nelson , A. Alling and J.P. Allen

 Abstract
During the years 2002 and 2003, three closed system experiments were carried out in the "Laboratory Biosphere" facility located in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The program involved experimentation of "Hoyt" Soy Beans, (experiment #1) USU Apogee Wheat (experiment #2) and TU-82-155 sweet potato (experiment #3) using a 5.37 m2 soil planting bed which was 30 cm deep. The soil texture, 40% clay, 31% sand and 28% silt (a clay loam), was collected from an organic farm in New Mexico to avoid chemical residues. Soil management practices involved minimal tillage, mulching, returning crop residues to the soil after each experiment and increasing soil biota by introducing worms, soil bacteria and mycorrhizae fungi. High soil pH of the original soil appeared to be a factor affecting the first two experiments. Hence, between experiments #2 and #3, the top 15 cm of the soil was amended using a mix of peat moss, green sand, humates and pumice to improve soil texture, lower soil pH and increase nutrient availability. This resulted in lowering the initial pH of 8.0-6.7 at the start of experiment #3. At the end of the experiment, the pH was 7.6. Soil nitrogen and phosphorus has been adequate, but some chlorosis was evident in the first two experiments. Aphid infestation was the only crop pest problem during the three experiments and was handled using an introduction of Hyppodamia convergens. Experimentation showed there were environmental differences even in this 1200 cubic foot ecological system facility, such as temperature and humidity gradients because of ventilation and airflow patterns which resulted in consequent variations in plant growth and yield. Additional humidifiers were added to counteract low humidity and helped optimize conditions for the sweet potato experiment. The experience and information gained from these experiments are being applied to the future design of the Mars On Earth(R) facility (Silverstone et al., Development and research program for a soil-based bioregenerative agriculture system to feed a four person crew at a Mars base, Advances in Space Research 31(1) (2003) 69-75; Allen and Alling, The design approach for Mars On Earth(R), a biospheric closed system testing facility for long-term space habitation, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Inc., IAC-02-IAA.8.2.02, 2002). c2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of COSPAR.

©2005 COSPAR

Published in Advances in Space Research (2005) 35(9): 1544-51.

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Technical review of the Laboratory Biosphere closed ecological system facility.

Dempster, W.F., Van Thillo, M., Alling, A., Allen, J.P., Silverstone, S., Nelson, M.

Laboratory Biosphere is a 40 m3 closed life system that commenced operation in May 2002. Light is from 12,000 W of high pressure sodium lamps over planting beds with 5.37 m2 of soil. Water is 100% recycled by collecting condensate from the temperature and humidity control system and mixing with leachate collected from under the planting beds. Atmospheric leakage was estimated during the first closure experiment to be 0.5-1% per day in general plus about 1% for each usage of the airlock door. The first trial run of 94 days was with a soybean crop grown from seeds (May 17, 2002) to harvest (August 14, 2002) plus 5 days of post-harvest closure. The focus of this initial trial was system testing to confirm functionality and identify any necessary modifications or improvements. This paper describes the organizational and physical features of the Laboratory Biosphere. c2004 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

© 2004 COSPAR

Published in Advances in Space Research (2004) 34, 1477-1482.

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Advances in Space Research - Volume 31, Number 7, 2003
Space Life Sciences: Closed Artificial Ecosystems and Life Support Systems.

Edited by M. Nelson, N.S. Pechurkin, W.F. Dempster, L.A. Somova, M.A. Shea.        

   Published by Pergamon.

This volume contains a series of papers relating to the most recent advances in space-related technologies, including:

Initial Experimental Results from the Laboratory Biosphere Closed Ecological System Facility

M. Nelson, W.F. Dempster, A. Alling, J.P. Allen, R. Rasmussen, S. Silverstone, M. Van Thillo

Abstract: An initial experiment in the Laboratory Biosphere facility, Santa Fe, New Mexico, was conducted May-August 2002 using a soil-based system with light levels (at 12 h per day) of 58-mol m-2 d-1. The crop tested was soybean, cultivar Hoyt, which produced an aboveground biomass of 2510 grams. Dynamics of a number of trace gases showed that methane, nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen gas had initial increases that were substantially reduced in concentration by the end of the experiment. Methane was reduced from 209 ppm to 11 ppm, and nitrous oxide from 5 ppm to 1.4 ppm in the last 40 days of the closure experiment. Ethylene was at elevated levels compared to ambient during the flowering/fruiting phase of the crop. Soil respiration from the 5.37 m2 (1.46 m3) soil component was estimated at 23.4 ppm h-1 or 1.28 g CO2 h-1 or 5.7 g CO2 m-2 d-1. Phytorespiration peaked near the time of fruiting at about 160 ppm h-1. At the height of plant growth, photosynthesis CO2 draw down was as high as 3950 ppm d-1, and averaged 265 ppm h-1 (whole day averages) during lighted hours with a range of 156-390 ppm h-1. During this period, the chamber required injections of CO2 to continue plant growth. Oxygen levels rose along with the injections of carbon dioxide. Upon several occasions, CO2 was allowed to be drawn down to severely limiting levels, bottoming at around 150 ppm. A strong positive correlation (about 0.05 ppm h-1 ppm-1 with r2 about 0.9 for the range 1000-5000 ppm) was observed between atmospheric CO2 concentration and the rate of fixation up to concentrations of around 8800 ppm CO2. c2003 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
 

© 2003 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Advances in Space Research, Vol 31 No. 7, pp.1721-1730, 2003

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Development and Research Program for a Soil-based Bioregenerative Agriculture System to Feed a Four Person Crew Mars Base.

S. Silverstone, M. Nelson, A. Alling, J. Allen.

Abstract: For humans to survive during long-term missions on the Martian surface, bioregenerative life support systems including food production will decrease requirements for launch of Earth supplies, and increase mission safety. It is proposed that the development of "modular biospheres"--closed system units that can be air-locked together and which contain soil-based bioregenerative agriculture, horticulture, with a wetland wastewater treatment system is an approach for Mars habitation scenarios. Based on previous work done in long-term life support at Biosphere 2 and other closed ecological systems, this consortium proposes a research and development program called Mars On Earth(TM) which will simulate a life support system designed for a four person crew. The structure will consist of 6 x 110 square meter modular agricultural units designed to produce a nutritionally adequate diet for 4 people, recycling all air, water and waste, while utilizing a soil created by the organic enrichment and modification of Mars simulant soils. Further research needs are discussed, such as determining optimal light levels for growth of the necessary range of crops, energy trade-offs for agriculture (e.g. light intensity vs. required area), capabilities of Martian soils and their need for enrichment and elimination of oxides, strategies for use of human waste products, and maintaining atmospheric balance between people, plants and soils. c2002 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
 

© 2002 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Advances in Space Research, Vol 31 No. 1, pp.69-75, 2003

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The Legacy of Biosphere 2 for the Study of Biospherics and Closed Ecological Systems.

J. P. Allen, M. Nelson and A. Alling.

Abstract: The unprecedented challenges of creating Biosphere 2, the world's first laboratory for biospherics, the study of global ecology and long-term closed ecological system dynamics, led to breakthrough developments in many fields, and a deeper understanding of the opportunities and difficulties of material closure. This paper will review accomplishments and challenges, citing some of the key research findings and publications that have resulted from the experiments in Biosphere 2. Engineering accomplishments included development of a technique for variable volume to deal with pressure differences between the facility and outside environment, developing methods of atmospheric leak detection and sealing, while achieving new standards of closure, with an annual atmospheric leakrate of less than 10%, or less than 300 ppm per day. This degree of closure permitted detailed tracking of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and trace gases such as nitrous oxide and ethylene over the seasonal variability of two years. Full closure also necessitated developing new approaches and technologies for complete air, water, and wastewater recycle and reuse within the facility. The development of a soil-based highly productive agricultural system was a first in closed ecological systems, and much was learned about managing a wide variety of crops using non-chemical means of pest and disease control. Closed ecological systems have different temporal biogeochemical cycling and ranges of atmospheric components because of their smaller reservoirs of air, water and soil, and higher concentration of biomass, and Biosphere 2 provided detailed examination and modeling of these accelerated cycles over a period of closure which measured in years. Medical research inside Biosphere 2 included the effects on humans of lowered oxygen: the discovery that human productivity can be maintained with good health with lowered atmospheric oxygen levels could lead to major economies on the design of space stations and planetary/lunar settlements. The improved health resulting from the calorie-restricted but nutrient dense Biosphere 2 diet was the first such scientifically controlled experiment with humans. The success of Biosphere 2 in creating a diversity of terrestrial and marine environments, from rainforest to coral reef, allowed detailed studies with comprehensive measurements such that the dynamics of these complex biomic systems are now better understood. The coral reef ecosystem, the largest artificial reef ever built, catalyzed methods of study now being applied to planetary coral reef systems. Restoration ecology advanced through the creation and study of the dynamics of adaptation and self-organization of the biomes in Biosphere 2. The international interest that Biosphere 2 generated has given new impetus to the public recognition of the sciences of biospheres (biospherics), biomes and closed ecological life systems. The facility, although no longer a materially-closed ecological system, is being used as an educational facility by Columbia University as an introduction to the study of the biosphere and complex system ecology and for carbon dioxide impacts utilizing the complex ecosystems created in Biosphere '.The many lessons learned from Biosphere 2 are being used by its key team of creators in their design and operation of a laboratory-sized closed ecological system, the Laboratory Biosphere, in operation as of March 2002, and for the design of a Mars on Earth(TM) prototype life support system for manned missions to Mars and Mars surface habitats. Biosphere 2 is an important foundation for future advances in biospherics and closed ecological system research. c2003 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd on behalf of COSPAR.
 

© 2002 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Advances in Space Research, Vol 31 No. 7, pp.1629-1639, 2003

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Earth Applications of Closed Ecological Systems: Relevance to the Development of Sustainability in Our Global Biosphere.

M. Nelson, J. Allen, A. Alling. W. F. Dempster and S. Silverstone.

Abstract:   The parallels between the challenges facing bioregenerative life support in artificial closed ecological systems and those in our global biosphere are striking. At the scale of the current global technosphere and expanding human population, it is increasingly obvious that the biosphere can no longer safely buffer and absorb technogenic and anthropogenic pollutants. The loss of biodiversity, reliance on non-renewable natural resources, and conversion of once wild ecosystems for human use with attendant desertification/soil erosion, has led to a shift of consciousness and the widespread call for sustainability of human activities. For researchers working on bioregenerative life support in closed systems, the small volumes and faster cycling times than in the Earth's biosphere make it starkly clear that systems must be designed to ensure renewal of water and atmosphere, nutrient recycling, production of healthy food, and safe environmental methods of maintaining technical systems. The development of technical systems that can be fully integrated and supportive of living systems is a harbinger of new perspectives as well as technologies in the global environment. In addition, closed system bioregenerative life support offers opportunities for public education and consciousness changing of how to live with our global biosphere. c2003 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
 

© 2003 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Advances in Space Research, Vol 31 No. 7, pp.1649-1655, 2003

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Advantages of Using Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment in Space Applications: Ground-Based Mars Base Prototype.

M. Nelson, A. Alling. W. F. Dempster, M. Van Thillo, and John Allen.

Abstract:   Research and design of subsurface flow wetland wastewater treatment systems for a ground-based experimental prototype Mars Base facility has been carried out, using a subsurface flow approach. These systems have distinct advantages in planetary exploration scenarios: they are odorless, relatively low-labor and low-energy, assist in purification of water and recycling of atmospheric CO2, and will support some food crops. An area of 6-8 m2 may be sufficient for integration of wetland wastewater treatment with a prototype Mars Base supporting 4-5 people. Discharge water from the wetland system will be used as irrigation water for the agricultural crop area, thus ensuring complete recycling and utilization of nutrients. Since the primary requirements for wetland treatment systems are warm temperatures and lighting, such bioregenerative systems may be integrated into early Mars base habitats, since waste heat from the lights may be used for temperature maintenance in the human living environment. "Wastewater gardens (TM)" can be modified for space habitats to lower space and mass requirements. Many of its construction requirements can eventually be met with use of in-situ materials, such as gravel from the Mars surface. Because the technology requires little machinery and no chemicals, and relies more on natural ecological mechanisms (microbial and plant metabolism), maintenance requirements are minimized, and systems can be expected to have long operating lifetimes. Research needs include suitability of Martian soil and gravel for wetland systems, system sealing and liner options in a Mars Base, and wetland water quality efficiency under varying temperature and light regimes. c2003 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

 

© 2003 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Advances in Space Research, Vol 31 No. 7, pp.1799-1804, 2003

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Light, Plants and Power for Life Support on Mars.

F. B. Salisbury, W. F. Dempster, J. P. Allen, A. Alling, D. Bubenheim, M. Nelson, S. Silverstone.

Abstract:  Regardless of how well other growing conditions are optimized, crop yields will be limited by the available light up to saturation radiances. Considering the various factors of clouds on Earth, dust storms on Mars, thickness of atmosphere, and relative orbits, there is roughly 2/3 as much light averaged annually on Mars as on Earth. On Mars, however, crops must be grown under controlled conditions (greenhouses or growth rooms). Because there presently exists no material that can safely be pressurized, insulated and resist hazards of puncture and deterioration to create life support systems on Mars while allowing for sufficient natural light penetration as well, artificial light will have to be supplied. If high irradiance is supplied for long daily photoperiods, the growing area can be reduced by a factor of 3-4 relative to the most efficient irradiance for cereal crops such as wheat and rice, and perhaps for some other crops. Only a small penalty in required energy will be incurred by such optimization. To obtain maximum yields, crops must be chosen that can utilize high irradiances. Factors that increase ability to convert high light into increased productivity include canopy architecture, high-yield index (harvest index), and long-day or day-neutral flowering and tuberization responses. Prototype life support systems such as Bios-3 in Siberia or the Mars on Earth Project need to be undertaken to test and further refine systems and parameters.

Copyright © 2002 Cognizant Comm. Corp. All rights reserved.

Life Support and Biosphere Science, Vol 8 pp. 161-172, 2002

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People Challenges in Biospheric Systems for Long-Term Habituation in Remote Areas, Space Stations, Moon and Mars Expeditions.

John Allen.

Abstract:  People who participate in remote and difficult expeditions. such as the 2-year (1991 -1993) Biosphere 2 experiment or a future biospheric system on Mars or other long voyages, will face individual psycho-physiological, social and cultural value challenges. The individual psycho-physiological vectors include the lure of being a hero/heroine and pushing it to the maximum, concealment of problems with the belief that he/she can overcome the obstacle alone, as well as the difficulty of keeping intact the critical differentiation of the risks associated with the overall expedition as opposed to the experimental objectives. The social challenges occur as a group dynamic context as well as for the individual, resulting in regression and the need to "act out" one's difficulties. Cultural areas of importance that must be taken into consideration will include esthetic, ethical , cosmological, and epistemological values. The epistemological values must involve the five methods of scientific inquiry for a comprehensive total systems project to succeed fully.

Copyright © 2002 Cognizant Comm. Corp. All rights reserved.

Life Support and Biosphere Science, Vol 8 pp. 67 - 70, 2002

Human Factor Observations of the Biosphere 2, 1991-1993, Closed Life Support Human Experiment and Its Application to a Long-Term Manned Mission to Mars.

Abigail Alling, Mark Nelson, Sally Silverstone, and Mark Van Thillo.

Abstract:  Human factors are a key component to the success of long-term space missions such as those necessitated by the human exploration of Mars and the development of bioregenerative and eventually self-sufficient life support systems for permanent space outposts. Observations by participants living inside the 1991-1993 Biosphere 2 closed system experiment provide the following insights. (1) Crew members should be involved in the design and construction of their life support systems to gain maximum knowledge about the systems. (2) Individuals living in closed life support systems should expect a process of physiological and psychological adaptation to their new environment. (3) Far from simply being a workplace, the participants in such extended missions will discover the importance of creating a cohesive and satisfying life style. (4) The crew will be dependent on the use of varied crops to create satisfying cuisine, a social life with sufficient outlets of expression such as art and music, and to have down-time from purely task-driven work. (5) The success of the Biosphere 2 first 2-year mission suggests that crews with high cultural diversity, high commitment to task, and work democracy principles for individual responsibility may increase the probability of both mission success and personal satisfaction. (6) Remaining challenges are many, including the need for far more comprehensive real-time modeling and information systems (a "cybersphere") operating to provide real-time data necessary for decision-making in a complex life support system. (7) And, the aim will be to create a noosphere, or sphere of intelligence, where the people and their living systems are in sustainable balance.
 

Copyright © 2002 Cognizant Comm. Corp. All rights reserved.

Life Support and Biosphere Science, Vol 8 pp. 71 - 82, 2002

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Potential integration of wetland wastewater treatment with space life support systems.

Nelson, M., Alling, A, Dempster, W.F., Van Thillo, M. and J. Allen.

Subsurface-flow constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment and nutrient recycling have a number of advantages in planetary exploration scenarios: they are odorless, relatively low labor and low energy, assist in purification of water and recycling of atmospheric CO2, and can directly grow some food crops. This article presents calculations for integration of wetland wastewater treatment with a prototype ground-based experimental facility ("Mars on Earth") supporting four people showing that an area of 4-6 m2 may be sufficient to accomplish wastewater treatment and recycling. Discharge water from the wetland system can be used as irrigation water for the agricultural crop area, thus ensuring complete reclamation and utilization of nutrients within the bioregenerative life support system. Because the primary requirements for wetland treatment systems are warm temperatures and lighting, such bioregenerative systems can be integrated into space life support systems because heat from the lights may be used for temperature maintenance in the human living environment. Subsurface-flow wetlands can be modified for space habitats to lower space and mass requirements. Many of its construction requirements can eventually be met with use of in situ materials, such as gravel from the Mars surface. Because the technology does not depend on machinery and chemicals, and relies more on natural ecological mechanisms (microbial and plant metabolism), maintenance requirements (e.g., pumps, aerators, and chemicals) are minimized, and systems may have long operating lifetimes. Research needs include suitability of Martian soil and gravel for wetland systems, system sealing and liner options in a Mars base, and determination of wetland water quality efficiency under varying temperature and light regimes.

Life Support and Biosphere Science 2002: 8 (3/4):149-154.

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The Design Approach for Mars On Earth®, A Biospheric Closed System Testing Facility for Long-Term Space Habitation.

J. Allen, A. Alling.

Abstract:  This paper presents a design overview for a prototype Mars Base, which will simulate a long-term inhabited Mars mission on Earth to determine  the feasibility of maintaining humans in a self-sustaining system providing food, air, and water regeneration. The system, called Mars On Earth®, will initially be designed for a team of four, but the biosphere modules will be constructed so that they can be replicated and the numbers increased to support more occupants over time. In addition to the basic design layout of the physical closed system, a comprehensive approach to the design layout of a long-term sustainable space biosphere is presented. A long-term mission to Mars requires a comprehensive sustainable design which incorporates the complex system levels of the Solarsphere, Geosphere, Biosphere, Ethnosphere, Technosphere, Cybersphere and Noosphere.

Copyright © 2002 by Allen & Alling

Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
 

"Living off the land": resource efficiency of wetland wastewater treatment

M. Nelson, Odum, H.T., Brown, M.T., and A. Alling.

Bioregenerative life support technologies for space application are advantageous if they can be constructed using locally available materials, and rely on renewable energy resources, lessening the need for launch and resupply of materials. These same characteristics are desirable in the global Earth environment because such technologies are more affordable by developing countries, and are more sustainable long-term since they utilize less non-renewable, imported resources. Subsurface flow wetlands (wastewater gardens(TM)) were developed and evaluated for wastewater recycling along the coast of Yucatan. Emergy evaluations, a measure of the environmental and human economic resource utilization, showed that compared to conventional sewage treatment, wetland wastewater treatment systems use far less imported and purchased materials. Wetland systems are also less energy-dependent, lessening dependence on electrical infrastructure, and require simpler maintenance since the system largely relies on the ecological action of microbes and plants for their efficacy. Detailed emergy evaluations showed that wetland systems use only about 15% the purchased emergy of conventional sewage systems, and that renewable resources contribute 60% of total emergy used (excluding the sewage itself) compared to less than 1% use of renewable resources in the high-tech systems. Applied on a larger scale for development in third world countries, wetland systems would require the electrical energy of conventional sewage treatment (package plants), and save of total capital and operating expenses over a 20-year timeframe. In addition, there are numerous secondary benefits from wetland systems including fiber/fodder/food from the wetland plants, creation of ecosystems of high biodiversity with animal habitat value, and aesthestic/landscape enhancement of the community. Wetland wastewater treatment is an exemplar of ecological engineering in that it creates an interface ecosystem to handle byproducts of the human economy, maximizing performance of the both the natural economy and natural ecosystems. Wetland systems accomplish this with far greater resource economy than other sewage treatment approaches, and thus offer benefits for both space and Earth applications. c 2001. COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Advances in Space Research 27 (9): 1546-1556.

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A Simulation of an Inhabited Biospheric Mars Base to be Constructed and Operated in the Egyptian Sahara.

Joe Allen, A. Alling, F. El-Baz.

Abstract:  This paper presents a design overview for a prototype Mars Base, which will simulate a long-term inhabited Mars mission on Earth to determine  the feasibility of maintaining humans in a self-sustaining system providing food, air, and water regeneration. The paper will propose that the Mars Base test-bed project, called Mars On Earth®, be constructed in the Great Sand Sea region of Egypt, and a basis of comparison between the Southwest desert of Egypt and the landscape of Mars will be made. the paper will describe the essential ingredients for the Mars Base test-bed, which will be designed and developed with the objective of making it simple enough for subsequent modules to be transported to and/or recreated on Mars. The test-bed will be atmospherically closed to examine biogeochemical processes, but open to information, energy and certain material exchange. Material exchange will include any import or export that facilities the experimental objectives for developing a  biospheric long-term closed system on Mars.

Copyright © 1998 by Allen, Alling, El-Baz

Presented at the third International Conference of Life Support and Biosphere Science Jan 11th - 15th, 1998

For a general overview of the history and achievements of the Biosphere 2 project a range of articles can be found in Biosphere 2: Research Past & Present. Editors B.D.V.Marino & H.T. Odum, Published by Elsevier, 1999.

  Biospherics and Biosphere 2, Mission One (1991 - 1993) - John Allen, Mark Nelson

http://www.elsevier.com/inca/publications/store/6/2/0/1/2/0/index.htt

Bios-3: Siberian Experiments in Bioregenerative Life Support.
Attempts to purify air and grow food for space exploration in a sealed environment began in 1972

Frank B. Salisbury,  Josef I. Gitelson, and Genry M. Lisovsky.

Frank B. Salisbury is a Professor Emeritus in the Department of Plants, Soils, and Biometeorology in the College of Agriculture at Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4820. Josef I. Gitelson is Director and Genry M. Lisovsky is Chief Scientist at the Institute of Biophysics, Academy of Sciences of Russia, Siberian Branch, Krasnoyarsk, Russia.

Extract: When rocket science made it possible for humans to venture into space, it became apparent that human life support was the next pressing challenge. For the short term, this problem was solved by applying engineering approaches to provide a spacecraft atmosphere of suitable pressure and composition. Food and water were brought along, and wastes were stored or jettisoned. It soon became apparent, however, that long space voyages would benefit from waste recycling, possibly by using green plants (i.e., algae or higher plants) to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, producing oxygen and even food, as on Earth. Transpired water vapor would be condensed and reused, and wastes from the crew would be at least partially recycled to the plants, the ecosystem's primary producers.

An excellent article giving a good introduction to early developments in the ALSS field as well as important insights into the research methodologies and strategies of the pioneering Russian group who made such significant advances. The article, with interesting illustrations, is published online by the American Institute of Biological Sciences. (click here)

© 1997 American Institute of Biological Sciences.

For further research into the science of Biospherics, a more comprehensive list of books and references is available here.